Synopsis of the principal DNA reports relied upon
| Author & Title | Relevance to 1421 | |
| 1 | Gabriel Novick & Colleagues | “Close similarity between the Chinese and native Americans suggests recent gene flow from Asia.” |
| ‘Polymorphic Alu Insertions and the Asian Origin of Native American Populations’ in Human Biology, Vol 70 No. 1, p. 23. 1988 | Maximum-likelihood tree shows Maya and Greenland and Alaska natives are the closest to Chinese. 691 individuals belonging to 24 native American populations were surveyed. Relevant to 1421 voyages to Atlantic and Pacific coasts of N and S America. |
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| 2 | J Bruges-Armas and colleagues: ‘HLA in the Azores Archipelago: possible presence of mongoloid genes’ in Tissue Antigens Vol 54, 1999. | “Our results indicate that the Azorean population most likely contains an admixture of high-frequency Caucasoid Mongoloid and to a lesser degree Negroid HLA genes. . . genetic distances are in some cases closer to the Asian than to European ethnic groups . . . it is proposed that a Mongoloid population exists in the Azores.” Relevance to voyages to N America, Greenland, Azores, Canaries and Cape Verde islands (circulatory wind systems). |
| 3 | Noah A. Rosenberg and colleagues ‘Genetic structure of human populations’ in Science Vol 298 20 December 2002. | HGDP-CEPH Human Genome Diversity Cell Line Panel was used. Most Maya, Pima and Colombian groups had East Asian admixture (pink). Relevance to both Atlantic and Pacific voyages to N and S America. Results support Novick using different ancestry markers. |
| 4 | Tony Frudakis and colleagues: ‘SNP based Measurement of Biogeographical Ancestry Admixture Population’ Unpublished August 2003 – to be published shortly. | Frudakis and colleagues used the Human Genome project from which they selected Ancestry Information Markers specially chosen for denoting diversity (ie. taking Rosenberg and colleagues’ method a stage further). The results should give more accurate determination of ancestry than hitherto and should enable DNA to be dated using the percentage of linkage disequilibrium. They have built up a large database of N American Indian peoples. Their results corroborate Rosenberg’s. Relevance to Atlantic and Pacific voyages to the Americas. |
| 5 | R Yanagihara and colleagues ‘JC Virus Genotypes in the Western Pacific suggest Asian mainland relationships and virus association with early population movements’ in Human Biology Vol 74 No. 3, June 2002. | “Our findings support the Asian origins of the Western Pacific JCV strains and suggest three broad movements . . . and relatively recent movements carrying largely type 7A (South China) strains directly from the West.” “In addition to type 2E, the other major genotype in the Chamorro of Guam was type 7A, which is shared with people in South China and Taiwan.” Relevance to voyages from China eastwards across the Pacific to Hawaii/Guam. |
| 6 | Theodore G Schurr and colleagues in American Journal of Human Genetics 46: 6-3-623 1990. ‘Amerindian mitochondrial DNA”s have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages.’ | “The Mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA) sequence variation of South American Ticuna, the Central American Maya and the North American Pima was analysed . . . the analysis revealed that Amerindian populations have high frequencies of mtDNA”s containing the rare Asian RFLP Hine II morph 6 . . . In addition, the Asian-specific deletion . . . was also prevalent in both the Pima and the Maya.” Schurr’s results tally with those of Novick and Rosenberg. |
| 7 | Felipe Vilchis: ‘HLA genes and the origin of the Amerindians’ in Genética Biomedicina Molecular 200 Resume GY E02, Monterey, Mexico (trans. Ian Hudson). | “The results of the filogenetic analysis reported here support the idea that the autochthonous pueblos based in Meso-America and South America had common ancestors, with as many coming with the migratory wave from the north as those that took the trans-Pacific route. . . Of even more interest the allelic distribution among the Mazatecs showed a genotypic pattern that was very similar to that found amongst Asian peoples . . . which represents a very high incidence in the population that was studied.” Relevance to trans-Pacific voyages from Asia to Mexico. |
| 8 | Matthew E Hurles and colleagues, ‘Native American Y chromosomes in Polynesia: The genetic impact of the Polynesian slave trade’ American Journal of Human Genetics. 72, 1282-1287, 2003. | “Since Thor Heyerdahl asserted that Polynesia was first colonised from the Americas (Heyerdahl 1950) geneticists have sought – but have not found – any evidence to support his theories.” |
| 9 | Geoffrey K Chambers and colleagues. As published in BBC News , August 11 1998: ‘World: Asia-Pacific Maoris may have come from China. Using genes to reconstruct human history in Polynesia.’ | “The information that has come from several studies in my laboratory turns out to be consistent with a pattern of migration starting with an ancestral population in mainland Asia.” |
| 10 | Antonio Torroni and colleagues : “Mt DNA variation of aboriginal Siberians reveals distinct genetic affinities with native Americans.’ In American Journal of Human Genetics 53: 591-608, 1993. | “The presence of Group B deletion haplotypes in East Asian and Native American populations but their absence in Siberians raises the possibility that haplogroup B could represent a migratory event distinct from the one(s) which brought group A, C and D mtDNA”s to the Americas”. Relevance: Trans-Pacific contact between East Asia and America. |
| 11 | Antonio Torroni and colleagues: ‘Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding native American mt DNA”s.’ In American Journal of Human Genetics 1993 Sept 53(3) 563-90. | Comment in American Journal of Human Genetics 1994 August 55(2) 413-4 and American Journal of Human Genetics 1995 May 56 (5) 1234-8: “The sequencing of 341 nucleoides in the mtDNA loop revealed that the D-loop sequence variation correlated strongly with the four haplo-groups defined by restriction analysis and it indicated that the D loop variation like the haplotype variation, arose predominantly after the migration of the ancestral Amerinds across the Bering land bridge”. Reference: trans-Pacific voyages to America. |
| 12 | Tulio Arends and M L Gallengo: ‘Transferrins in Venezuelan Indians: high frequency of a slow-moving variant’. In Science 143: 367 dated 24 Jan 1964. | “In 58 percent of the Yupa Indians of Venezuela there is a slow moving tranferrin electrophoretically indistinguishable from Tf Dchi, which to date, has only been found in Chinese. This finding is additional evidence for the existence of a racial link between South American Indians and Chinese.” Relevance: Atlantic voyages to S America and Caribbean from China. |
| 13 | A Arnaiz-Villena and colleagues: ‘HLA genes in Mexican Mazatecans, the peopling of the Americas and the uniqueness of Amerindians in Tissue Antigens, 2000: 56 | Finally, the peopling of America sequence may have been more complicated than previously thought: it seems that Mongoloids from China-Mongolia (but not from Siberia, see above) are found to have been both in America or the Middle Atlantic (Azores) before Columbus . . . “ Relevance: China-Mongolian Atlantic voyages to N America. |
| 14 | Bryan Sykes The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bantam Press, 2001, London. P. 101-106 and 282-295. | “The genetics rules out Thor Heyerdahl’s explanation that the sweet potato was brought into the Pacific by the people who he thought had colonised Polynesia from South America . . . . To my knowledge not a single sample of Polynesian mitochrondrial DNA has ever been found there. . . The genetics proves that, too, beyond any doubt: the Maori of Aotearoa [New Zealand] share exactly the same mitochondrial DNA as their cousins in Polynesia.” Relevance: Polynesians did not visit S. America to bring sweet potatoes to New Zealand nor did the Maori. |
| 15 | Katsushi Tokunaga and colleagues. ‘Genetic link between Asians and Native Americans: Evidence from HLA genes and haplotypes’ in Human Immunology 62 1001-1008 (2001). | A 24-CW8-B4B was commonly observed in Taiwan indigenous populations, Maori in New Zealand, Orochon in North East China, Inuit and Tlingit. These findings further support the genetic link between East Asians and Native Americans. Relevance: (1) Chinese (Taiwan) and Maoris common haplotype. (2) from Figure 1 Spanish gypsies and Chinese. (3) Connections between Native Americans (Toba Wichi and Terena) with N E Asians, Japanese and Ryuku. (4) DB1* 0802 very common Allele in Native Americans and in Japanese (Ainu Ryuku and North East Asia). (5) Haplotype A31-B51 commonly observed in both Native Americans (native Brazilian and N American Indians) and East Asians. Conclusion: Native Americans show stronger genetic affinities to North East Asians than the other major populations in the world. |
| 16 | Fidias E, Leon S, ‘Peopling the Americas’ in Science Vol 273 (1996) pp. 723-5. | “People with the so-called ‘new’ Allele . . . such as the Cayapa or Chachi from Ecuador also display an aldehyde dehydrogenase deficiency that is molecularly similar to that found in Southeast Asia and Japanese people but absent in Northeast Asians. . . .These similarities add strength to the proposal that ancient voyages could follow the Pacific sea currents that join Japan to South America as well as other routes.” Relevance: Trans Pacific crossings to South America. |
| 17 | Not provided. | |
| 18 | M Hertzberg and colleagues, ‘An Asian specific 9 of b.p. deletion of mitochrondrial DNA is frequently found in Polynesians”. American Journal of Human Genetics 44 (504-510 (1989). | “. . . One hundred fifty Polynesians from five different island groups (Samoans, Maoris, Niueans, Cook Islanders and Tongans) were surveyed for the presents of an Asian-specific length mutation of mitochondrial (mt) DNA . . . 100% of Samoans, Maoris and Niueans . . .” |
| 19 | Not provided yet – coming later | |
| 20 | Shinji Harihara and colleagues: ‘Frequency of a 9bp deletion in the mitochrondrial DNA among Asian populations’ in Human Biology April 1992 vol 64, no. 2, pp. 161-166. | Figure 2 has startling pie charts. It appears that Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Nieu, the Cook Islanders and the Maori had ancestors from the Shizuoka prefecture of Japan! |
| 21 | Not provided yet – coming later | |
| 22 | Not provided yet – coming later | |
| 23 | Not provided yet – coming later. | |
| 23 | Fideas E, Leon S, and colleagues. ‘HLA TransPacific contacts and retrovirus’ in Human Immunology, Vol 42 (1995) p. 349. | “Cerna et al . . . stated that some of the genetic markers on HLA that they found could have been introduced to South America through some ancient trans-Pacific contacts. Such statements fit with our recent investigations on neurological diseases, specifically those related to retroviruses; we also suggested that HTLV-1 retrovirus could have been introduced to South America through trans-Pacific contacts. . . . a Colombian aboriginal group living near the Pacific Colombian coast named the Noanama/Wanana, are clustered genetically closer to Japanese people than to other American natives. Relevance: (i) Trans-Pacific voyages to S America (ii) corroborates Novick and colleagues’ research. |
| 24 | Peter Parham, response to ‘Peopling the Americas’ in Science 273 (1996). | “Another recombitant —- of B*4003 which was just discovered in the Guarani and was described as being specific to S. America has now been found in Koreans, Japanese and Mongolians . . . Given this insight the HLA class Haplotype B* 4003, CW* 0304, A*0211 becomes a candidate for having found its way to South America by a route not involving passage through S. America.” Relevance: The Guarani are reached across the Atlantic. The natives of Ecuador and Colombia described by Fidias E, Leon S (to whom Peter Parham was replying) are reached across the Pacific from S E Asia. Zhou Man’s voyage was across the Atlantic to S America through the Straits of Magellan and up the Pacific coast – with wind and current all the way. This squares with Fidias E, Leon S, and Peter Parham’s evidence. They are not in conflict. |
| 25.?? | ||
| 26 | Shinji Ijichi and colleagues. ‘Identification of human T cell leukaemia virus Type IIb Infection in the Wayu, an Aborigine population of Colombia’ in Jpn J Cancer Res 84 1215-1218 Dec 1993. | “The finding of HTLV-IIb in the Wayu supports the view that either this virus is indigenous to the New World, or alternatively that it may well have been introduced to the New World during the early migrations of the ancestors of currently existing Indian Populations.” (refer to Novick 1.) |
| 27 | Not supplied | |
| 28 | Fuminaka Sugauchi and colleagues. “A novel variant genotype C of hepatitis B virus identified in isolates from Australian Aborigines.” | Variant C is found in aborigines, Genotype C in Japan, Korea, China, Thailand, New Caledonia and Polynesia. |
